Drinking Water

Overview
   Relevant Activities
   Role of Local Governments
U.S. EPA Resources
Other Resources 
   Other Federal Agencies & Programs
   Associations for Local Officials
Funding & Financing

Overview

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) protects public water supplies primarily by establishing minimum water quality standards for contaminants that the nation's nearly 50,000 public water systems must meet, as well as monitoring and reporting obligations. The SDWA additionally provides for technical assistance to small water systems as well as controlling the underground injection of fluids, financing infrastructure projects and protecting sources of drinking water.

The SDWA applies to public water systems (PWS), which are water systems, whether owned and operated by government entities or private investors, that:

• Supply, to the public, water for human consumption through pipes or other constructed conveyances, and
• Provide at least 15 service connections or regularly serve (meaning a minimum of 60 days out of the year) at least 25 individuals. 

The three broad categories of PWS regulated by the law are community water systems (CWS), most commonly associated with local water utilities, non-transient non-community water systems (NTNCWS) and transient non-community water systems (TNCWS).

Implementation and Enforcement Authority

EPA may delegate to states, territories, and Indian Tribes primary implementation and enforcement authority (primacy) for the Public Water Supply Supervision (PWSS) Program and the underground injection control (UIC) program. EPA has delegated PWSS authority to 49 states and one tribe; EPA retains a backup enforcement role and has emergency powers to protect public health. EPA is primarily responsible for enforcing drinking water requirements in Wyoming, Washington, DC and on most Indian reservations. For more information on implementation and enforcement authority, see the following:

If EPA learns a PWS is noncompliant with the SDWA and notifies the state, but the state fails to take appropriate action within 30 days, EPA may commence enforcement action. Enforcement can take the form of civil action, compliance order or injunctive relief. Civil penalties for primary standard violations take into account several factors, including the seriousness of the violation and the population at risk. Significant noncompliance refers to serious and continuous violations of most MCLs and their respective monitoring and reporting requirements, as well as violations of compliance agreements or compliance schedules. A PWS with repeated violations likely to adversely affect human health, and that is unable or unwilling to take feasible and affordable actions, may be required to assess options including consolidation or transfer of ownership.

• EPA and individual states provide Small System Technical Assistance through nonprofit organizations or other means. This includes circuit-rider and multistate regional technical assistance programs, training and assistance in implementing regulations, source water protection plans, monitoring plans and water security enhancements.

Drinking Water Standards

EPA regulates more than 90 contaminants under the SDWA. EPA sets both primary and secondary standards for contaminants.

The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR), or primary standards, protect public health. EPA establishes these for contaminants that: (1) may have adverse effects; (2) "are known to occur, or there is a substantial likelihood that they will occur, in PWSs with a frequency and at levels of public health concern;" and (3) can be regulated effectively to reduce health risks. 

EPA's process for establishing primary standards involves identifying contaminants of potential concern, assessing health risks, collecting national occurrence data and deciding whether a contaminant warrants regulation. New standards take effect three years after adoption by EPA, but a PWS may seek two additional years to comply if additional time is necessary for capital improvements. EPA reviews each primary standard every six years. EPA may also promulgate an interim national primary drinking water regulation to address an urgent threat to public health.

Secondary standards protect public welfare. They address aesthetic concerns, such as odor, taste and appearance. Secondary standards are not federally enforceable but may be enforceable under state law.

For each regulated contaminant, EPA sets either a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) or a treatment technique. EPA first sets a non-enforceable Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) at a level at which there are no known or anticipated adverse health effects, with an adequate margin of safety. The MCLG is set at zero for probable carcinogens and at a "no effect" level for noncarcinogenic contaminants. It is based on EPA's estimate of the general population's exposure to the contaminant that is attributable to drinking water.

Unregulated Contaminants

Many contaminants are unregulated. Every five years, EPA publishes the Contaminant Candidate List (click to see CCL 5), a list of unregulated contaminants that are known or anticipated to occur in PWSs and that may warrant regulation.

EPA has issued health advisories for more than 200 contaminants not regulated under SDWA. EPA sets health advisory levels at concentrations expected to be protective of the most sensitive subpopulations. Health advisories provide information on health effects, chemical properties, occurrence, exposure, test methods and treatment technologies for specific contaminants. 

Lead and Copper

Exposure to lead or copper results in serious health impacts. Lead (Pb) can damage the brain, red blood cells and kidneys, and is especially damaging to young children and pregnant women; there is no level of lead considered "safe." Copper (Cu) exposure results in stomach and intestinal distress, liver or kidney damage and complications of Wilson's disease in genetically predisposed people. Detecting and treating lead is particularly challenging, because it most often enters domestic water supplies after treated water enters the distribution system. Controlling corrosion is the principal method used to reduce lead in tap water, because lead can leach from pipes, plumbing materials and fixtures. Lead service lines (LSL) are a common culprit. Prior to the 1930s, LSLs were often used to extend water service from water mains to residences. EPA currently estimates between 6.3 and 9.3 million LSLs remain in service nationwide. In 1991, EPA issued the Lead and Copper Rule to control lead and copper in drinking water. The rule has been revised several times, most recently in 2024.

PFAS

PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) are emerging chemicals of concern that have contaminated drinking water supplies across the U.S. Some of the more common applications included nonstick cookware, food wrapper coatings, stain-resistant carpets, waterproof materials, food containers and firefighting foam. Many PFAS persist in the environment and bioaccumulate, putting those exposed at risk of severe health effects. Between 18 and 80 million people in the U.S. are exposed to two priority PFAS— PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid) and PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonic acid)—in their drinking water. A 2015 study found PFAS to be in the blood of 97% of participants in the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a nationally representative sample of 5,000 Americans. Exposure to these substances above certain thresholds is linked to health impacts, including developmental effects, changes in liver, immune and thyroid function as well as increased risk of some cancers.

The PFAS most frequently detected in water supplies are PFOA and PFOS. They can cause reproductive and developmental, liver, kidney and immunological effects in laboratory animals, as well as increased cholesterol effects. An independent panel of scientists found a probable link between PFOA exposure and multiple health problems, such as high cholesterol, thyroid disease, and testicular and kidney cancer, as well as pregnancy-induced hypertension. 

Security

Drinking water systems are critical infrastructure, potentially vulnerable to service disruptions from extreme weather and natural disasters, to malevolent acts like cyberattacks and contamination. EPA is the lead agency responsible for water sector security, including cybersecurity.  The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 added drinking water security provisions to the SDWA. For more information on cybersecurity, visit LGEAN's Cybersecurity page.

Relevant Activities

• Vehicle & Equipment Maintenance
• Drinking Water Systems Operations

Role of Local Governments

Drinking Water Standards

EPA sets an enforceable MCL as close to the MCLG as is feasible for a PWS to attain with the use of the best technology available, taking costs into consideration. EPA does not specify any specific technology or method for meeting the MCL, but generally sets standards based on technologies that are affordable for large communities. EPA also lists methods that are affordable for small PWSs serving populations of 10,000 or fewer. A PWS may use any technology to meet the MCL, but cannot use bottled water, except in certain temporary circumstances. 

EPA will establish a treatment technique—an engineering or design requirement—in lieu of an MCL, if it is technologically or economically infeasible for a PWS to monitor for the contaminant in drinking water.

Unregulated Contaminants

Every five years, EPA publishes an Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (see proposed UCMR 5). The UCMR lists no more than 30 unregulated contaminants each PWS must monitor. The goal is to assess the frequency and levels of a contaminant's occurrence nationwide and inform EPA's review of contaminants that may warrant regulation. All systems serving more than 10,000 people—and a nationally representative sample of smaller systems—must monitor for these contaminants. The data are added to the National Contaminant Occurrence Database. 

Certifications, Variances, and Exemptions

CWS operators must be certified. EPA provides reimbursement for costs of training and certification for persons operating systems serving 3,300 or fewer people.

A PWS may qualify for a temporary variance or exemption from meeting primary standards under certain conditions. Variances are authorized for source water quality issues, but only if the PWS installs an identified variance technology and if the resulting drinking water quality is protective of people's health. The PWS must follow a compliance schedule and notify the public of the variance. Exemptions give eligible systems additional time to achieve and maintain regulatory compliance with new primary standards. They apply only if a system cannot comply for other compelling reasons (including costs) and if the drinking water does not cause unreasonable risk to health. Like variances, a PWS must follow a compliance schedule and notify the public. Exemptions are effective for three years.

SDWA directly prohibits a PWS from using pipes, including solder and flux, that are not "lead free." This translates into an allowable standard of 0.25% lead weighted average for pipes, plumbing, fittings and fixtures. Solder and flux are limited to 0.2% lead. Exceptions exist for pipes, pipe fitting, plumbing fittings and fixtures that are used exclusively for non-potable services, such as toilets, bidets, shower valves and fire hydrants. However, many communities and homes contain legacy pipes and plumbing exceeding this limit.

A PWS must notify the public, state and EPA of system lead action level exceedances (action levels explained below). A PWS must issue this notification within 24 hours for an exceedance that has the potential to cause serious adverse health effects from short-term exposure. If EPA has data indicating that a household's water exceeds the lead action level, it will forward the data and testing information to the water system and the state; the PWS then must provide the data and other specified information to the affected households.

Lead and Copper Rule

The Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) is a treatment technique (not an MCL) for lead and copper. The LCR sets an action level (AL) based on the 90th percentile level of samples collected at consumers' taps in certain homes: 15 ppb for lead and 1,300 ppb for copper. An AL exceeded in samples collected at consumers' taps triggers the following actions:

• Optimize corrosion control treatment (CCT). This usually involves adjusting the water supply's acidity. A CWS has 24 months to install the type of CCT selected by the state, followed by two consecutive six-month periods of tap sampling and water quality parameter monitoring. Medium and small systems may cease CCT if they maintain levels equal to or less than the AL for two consecutive six-month periods, but they must recommence if the AL is again exceeded.
• Public education. The CWS must notify consumers of lead tap monitoring results and notify both customers and the public within 60 days after the end of a monitoring period in which a lead AL level is exceeded. Notification is through quarterly water bill inserts, biennial press releases and information posted online. The LCR sets out requirements governing the content and delivery of printed public education materials (e.g., information on health effects of lead, sources of lead, steps consumers can take to reduce their exposure to lead and how to access water testing). A PWS must coordinate with local health agencies to reach at-risk populations and deliver materials to other organizations serving these populations.
• Water quality parameter (WQP) monitoring. WQP samples at taps are collected every six months. WQP samples at entry points to the distribution system are collected every six months prior to CCT installation, and then every two weeks. 
• Source water treatment (SOWT). Each state sets maximum permissible levels (MPLs) for Pb and Cu in source water and mandates the treatment method. Systems have 24 months to install the treatment and then conduct follow-up monitoring. 
• Lead service line replacement (LSLR). A CWS typically owns the portion of the service line extending from a water main to a residence's property line, a water meter, or a shut-off valve; the remaining portion is owned by the property owner. A CWS that has optimized corrosion control and still exceeds the lead AL is required to replace at least 7% of its LSLs annually until the AL is not exceeded for two consecutive six-month monitoring periods; the state can require an accelerated schedule. The CWS must replace the portion of each LSL it owns and offer owners an opportunity to have their portion of the LSL replaced at the owner's cost; a CWS is not required to pay for the owner's replacement costs. However, if the CWS only partially replaces a LSL, it must notify residents at least 45 days prior about potential for increased lead levels and inform them about measures to minimize lead exposure. 

The CWS must notify the state agency or EPA if it plans to change the source or treatment of its water supply. The LCR contains additional requirements for carrying out regular monitoring, including selecting sample site locations and monitoring frequency. 

Every CWS, regardless of lead levels, must provide customers with both a CCR containing an educational statement about lead in drinking water, and a lead consumer notice that includes individual Pb tap results to people who receive water from sites that were sampled, within 30 days of learning the results. 

EPA in 2021 promulgated Lead and Copper Rule Revisions (LCRR). The LCRR maintains the 15 ppb lead AL but also establishes a 10 ppb "trigger" level. A CWS exceeding that threshold will need to take proactive steps to remove lead from the drinking water distribution system. Changes to the LSLR program include:

• Each CWS must carry out and regularly update an LSL inventory and develop a plan to replace all LSLs.
• A CWS serving more than 10,000 customers that exceeds the AL will have to replace 3% of LSLs annually, until it no longer exceeds the AL for four consecutive six-month periods. Partial LSL replacement will not count toward that total.
• A CWS will need to replace its portion of an LSL within 45 days (or 180 days with state notification) of being notified of a customer's intent to replace their LSL portion.

EPA announced on December 16, 2021, that the LCRR will go into effect immediately to support reducing lead in drinking water in the near term, while also undertaking a robust review with the aim of strengthening the rule further. The LCRR compliance date was October 16, 2024. 

Monitoring and Reporting

A PWS must monitor its water supply to ensure compliance with the SDWA and report its monitoring results to the primary regulator. EPA establishes analytical test methods required for all prescribed monitoring activities.

Each PWS must directly notify customers about:

• Any failure to comply with a primary standard or testing or monitoring requirements. Notice of violations or exceedances with the potential for serious adverse effects on human health must be issued within 24 hours of the PWS learning of the violation. The notice must contain clear explanations of the violation or exceedance, its potential adverse effects on human health, corrective steps the PWS is taking and the necessity of seeking alternative water supplies in the interim. Notice must also be provided to EPA, as well as the head of the state or tribal agency with primacy and disseminated through the appropriate media.
• Existence of any variance or exemption, and any failure to comply with related requirements.
• The concentration level of any unregulated contaminant for which EPA requires public notice.

Each CWS must also issue an annual Consumer Confidence Report (CCR). A CCR is an annual report on the level of contaminants in the drinking water (including specified lead action level exceedances), the results of UCMR monitoring, violations of primary standards and significant violations of monitoring requirements that occurred during the monitoring period. SDWA regulations detail what content a PWS must include in each CCR. 

PFAS

EPA finalized the first primary standards for PFAS on April 10, 2024. PFOA and PFOS in drinking water are limited to 4 ppt, with a limit (based on a hazard index calculation) for any combination of PFNA, PFxS, PFBS and GenX chemicals.  PWSs will have three years to comply. In addition:

• EPA's PFAS Strategic Roadmap sets timelines for EPA to take specific actions on PFAS across environmental media between 2021 and 2024.
• EPA has finalized a rule implementing a requirement in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 adding seven PFAS to the Toxics Release Inventory.
• EPA has included PFAS on CCL 5.
• EPA is conducting hazard assessments for GenX chemicals, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), PFBS and PFNA.
• The EPA Council on PFAS will collaborate on cross-cutting strategies, advance new science, develop coordinated policies, regulations and communications, and engage with affected states, Tribes, communities and stakeholders.

Ten states (Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin) have issued regulations for specific PFAS, although none currently regulate PFAS as a class.

Security

Each CWS serving 3,300 or more individuals must carry out—and renew every five years— vulnerability assessments covering risk and resilience to the system from both intentional acts and natural hazards. Assessments span physical infrastructure, financial capacity and management practices. A PWS must certify its assessments and submit that certification to EPA, as well as prepare an emergency response plan based on the vulnerability assessment. Assessments are voluntary for a PWS serving fewer than 3,300, and EPA offers guidance and technical assistance to these systems. For more information on cybersecurity, visit LGEAN's Cybersecurity page.

Source Water Protection

The SDWA requires states to develop an EPA-approved Source Water Assessment Program (SWAP) for each PWS. These assessments inventory potential sources of contaminants and the risks they may pose for a PWS. A completed Source Water Assessment (SWA) can guide future action to protect source water supply. EPA publishes guidance and lists providers of technical assistance for developing water assessments and plans. 

Underground Injection Control Program

Over 130,000 PWSs rely on ground water supply, including nearly 38,000 CWSs. Underground Injection Control (UIC) Programs protect underground sources of drinking water (USDW). There are six classes of UIC wells. EPA has delegated primacy for all classes of wells to 35 states, shares implementation responsibility with seven states and implements the UIC program for all well classes in nine states.

Water Reuse

Nearly 340 billion gallons of water are discharged in the U.S. every day. Sources span municipal wastewater, industry process water, agriculture runoff, stormwater, and oil and gas produced water. Americans also withdraw about 322 billion gallons per day. But less than one percent of U.S. water demand is reused, despite its suitability for a variety of applications—including as a sustainable source of potable water supply.

Local governments are increasingly interested in constructing water purification facilities capable of treating effluent to potable standards to diversify drinking water sources, improve water quality and enhance resilience in the face of a changing climate. They may pursue either direct potable reuse (DPR) or indirect potable reuse (IPR):

• DPR delivers treated wastewater effluent directly to a drinking water treatment facility.
• IPR first diverts treated wastewater to a surface water body or groundwater aquifer, where it mixes with other raw water surfaces until it is again treated to potable standards.

EPA has not yet established federal standards specifically applicable to DPR or IPR. Several states are developing uniform water recycling criteria, including California, Florida and Texas. The state of Colorado has approved a regulation authorizing DPR and providing guidance for water suppliers.

Several individual localities are piloting water purification facilities. Examples include Pure Water San Diego (IPR), Orange County, CA's Groundwater Replenishment System (GWRS) (IPR) and El Paso, TX's Advanced Water Purification Facility (DPR – in development).

EPA in 2020 issued the National Water Reuse Action Plan (National WRAP) and complementary online platform. EPA released an Update on Collaborative Progress in 2021, recognizing completion of three action items and 165 implementation milestones. In 2022, EPA announced a Water Reuse Interagency Working Group to develop and coordinate actions, tools and resources to advance water reuse across the U.S.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Resources

• 7th Drinking Water Infrastructure Need Survey and Assessment Results Fact Sheet. Highlights key findings from the seventh national survey of the nation's public water systems' infrastructure needs and provides a basis for allocating the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund grants to states. Check out the fact sheet and FAQ.
• America's Water Infrastructure Act Section 2013 Compliance Data. Lists the community drinking water systems covered by the risk and resilience assessment and emergency response plan certification requirements, categories by size, and data on those that have complied with America's Water Infrastructure Act.
• America's Water Infrastructure Act: Risk and Resilience Assessments and Emergency Response Plans. Requires medium and large community drinking water systems (those serving 3,300 people or more) to create and update risk and resilience assessments (RRAs) and emergency response plans (ERPs). 
• Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Water Technical Assistance Page. EPA provides technical assistance (TA) to help communities identify drinking water, wastewater and/or stormwater infrastructure needs, plan for capital improvements, build capacity, and apply for the range of eligible projects under the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF), Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF), tribal or territory funding programs.
• Building the Capacity of Drinking Water Systems Aimed at small PWSs serving 10,000 or fewer people, this site contains reference guides, reports, handbooks and more on topics spanning operator certification, water system partnership, asset management and funding
• Consumer Confidence Reports Information for utilities on complying with CCR requirements, including online tools, public service announcements and communication tips. Click here to access annual state, territorial and tribal PWS compliance reports.
• Creating Resilient Water Utilities. Assists water sector utilities and stakeholders by providing practical tools, training, and technical assistance needed to increase resilience to climate change.
• EPA Water Technical Assistance Request Form. Local government staff and community members can request no-cost direct water technical assistance to evaluate drinking water, wastewater and stormwater infrastructure through this form.
• Drinking Water Infrastructure Risk and Resilience Program. Hub for drinking water systems to improve their resilience and stay apprised of current federal requirements on security and emergency response.
• EPA's Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey and Assessment. Projects needing drinking water capital improvement costs over the next 20 years, based on eligibility for the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund. 
• EPA's Safe Drinking Water Information Database. Enables users to query the Safe Drinking Water Information System federal database for information on each of the nation's public water systems including a public water system's violations and any enforcement measures that the state or EPA has taken in response.
• Making the Right Choices for Your Utility: Using Community Priorities and Sustainability Criteria for Water Infrastructure Decision-Making. Provides guidance for using community priorities and sustainability criteria in your water infrastructure decision-making.
• Moving Toward Sustainability: Sustainable and Effective Practices for Creating Your Water Utility Roadmap. A guide with examples of best practices to help water utilities develop a "roadmap" to achieving more sustainable operations.
• National Drinking Water Dashboard. Summary of key EPA regulatory activities over PWSs, including inspections and enforcement actions.
• National Public Water Systems Compliance Report. Annual national compliance report summarizing PWS violations reported by primacy agencies and recommendations for improving compliance. 
• National Recommended Water Quality Criteria Tables. Summary table compiling recommended water quality criteria for approximately 150 pollutants including guidance for establishing and managing water quality standards in line with aquatic and human life under the Clean Water Act. 
• Public Water System Supervision Program Water Supply Guidance Manual. Compilation of policy memoranda clarifying EPA drinking water policies and regulations, intended to assist PWSs in implementing the SDWA. 
• Sanitary Surveys. Guidance documents on conducting sanitary surveys, which assess a PWS's ability to provide safe drinking water.
• Tabletop Exercise Tool. Interactive platform that allows users to develop scenario-driven exercises to assist in the development and improvement of emergency response plans by testing existing policies and procedures with simulated conditions. 
• Water Quality Standards Variances. Offers resources on determining when to use a WQS variance, how it works, tips for getting started and regulatory requirements to keep in mind. 
• WATERS (Watershed Assessment, Tracking & Environmental Results System). Database of information from the national surface water network and EPA water programs, such as water quality, location of dischargers and waterbody use designation. 
• Lead and Copper Rule: A Quick Reference Guide. Two-page overview of the LCR, public health benefits, major monitoring provisions, lead consumer notice, consumer confidence reports (CCR), treatment technique and sampling requirements and more.
• Strategic Plan for Targeted Outreach to Populations Affected by Lead. Outlines responsibilities for EPA, states and PWSs to provide information to homes and communities once EPA receives drinking water data that indicates a household has drinking water levels above EPA's lead action level. 
• Optimal Corrosion Control Treatment Evaluation Technical Recommendations. Technical recommendations that both PWSs and primacy agencies can use to comply with LCR corrosion control treatment requirements and to evaluate and designate optimal corrosion control treatment (OCCT) more effectively.
• Clarification of Recommended Tap Sampling Procedures for Purposes of the Lead and Copper Rule. Provides recommendations on how PWS should address the removal and cleaning of aerators, pre-stagnation flushing and bottle configuration for LCR sampling.
• Lead Service Line Replacement Hub. Provides a variety of funding/financing resources, case studies, collection of LSLR challenges and best practices and compilation of lead research and applied science.
• Lead and Copper Rule Implementation Tools. Collection of resources for states and water utilities to implement the Lead and Copper Rule, including recordings of EPA's Webinar Series on Lead Service Line Replacements. 
• Drinking Water Treatability Database. Presents referenced information on the control of contaminants in drinking water, currently at more than 30 treatment processes and over 120 regulated and unregulated contaminants, including 26 PFAS chemicals.
• ECHO PFAS Analytic Tools. Visualization of PFAS data with localized information relating to the production, discharge and occurrence of PFAS. 
• Health & Environmental Research Online (HERO). Database of scientific studies used to develop EPA's risk assessments that contains scientific literature on PFAS toxicity.
• Human Health Toxicity Assessments for GenX Chemicals. Final human health toxicity assessment for GenX chemicals (technical name: Hexafluoropropylene Oxide (HFPO) Dimer Acid and its Ammonium Salt). 
• PFAS Analytical Methods Development and Sampling Research. Lists current EPA-validated analytical methods for detecting PFAS in various environmental media, including drinking water; links to methods published by other U.S. federal agencies.
• Research on Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). Provides information on EPA's current research into PFAS chemicals, including analytical methods, PFAS toxicity, PFAS exposure, drinking water treatment options and multiple resources and publications. 
• Water Reuse and Recycling. EPA's central repository of water reuse resources, including the Water Reuse Information Library and the National Water Reuse Action Plan (WRAP) and Online Platform.

Other Resources

• National Water Research Institute. Nonprofit that collaborates with water utilities, regulators and researchers and makes available selected reports written by panels of scientists and technical advisors.
• Water Research Foundation. International water research organization that hosts an online research library and manages a database of innovative technologies.
• Rural Community Assistance Corporation. Provides resources for rural communities.
• Identification of point source dischargers of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the United States. Study analyzing data collected between August 2016 and March 2021 and identifying tens of thousands of potential point sources for PFAS across the U.S. (by the Environmental Working Group and published in the journal of the American Water Works Association (AWWA)). 
• WateReuse Association: State Policy and Regulation. Clickable map of the U.S. for determining how each state regulates the treatment and distribution of recycled water.

Other Federal Agencies & Programs

• Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). ATSDR makes available a multitude of resources about hazardous substances and their health effects, including a Public Health Statement for Lead and ToxFAQs for Lead.
• Toxicological Profile for Perfluoroalkyls. ATSDR toxicological profile providing information on the chemical and physical properties of certain PFAS (May 2021).
• USGS National Water Dashboard. Interactive map displaying provisional real-time stream, lake, reservoir, precipitation, water quality and groundwater data from USGS observation stations across the country. 

Associations for Local Officials

• Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies (AMWA). An organization of the largest publicly owned water utilities in the United States, offering resources on high-priority topics, in addition to webinars on emerging trends, technology and standards within the drinking water industry. 
• American Water Works Association (AWWA). The largest organization of water supply professionals in the world, offering educational events and training materials, a technical library and a variety of other programming and toolkits.
• National Rural Water Association (NRWA). Non-profit organization assisting small and rural water systems through federally funded programs, including water circuit riders, apprenticeship program, source water protection, the SDWA compliance program and the NRWA Environmental Finance Center.
• Smart Water Networks (SWAN). Forum Network of water, wastewater and stormwater industry experts that provides white papers, reports, case studies, surveys and more.

Funding & Financing 

For more information on Funding & Financing, please see the Drinking Water section of LGEAN's Funding & Financing page.

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